Performance of employees and whole organizations is affected by the goals they set themselves. although the goal setting process is a tedious and complex one, the effort is not only worthwhile, but becoming essential in todays organizations.
Organizations introducing a goal-based management – also known as “Management by Objectives” – report performance increases of 25% or more. But there are bad examples as well.
The most important reasons for having goals are:
* Goals guide and direct behavior of individuals and groups
* Goals provide challenges and indicators for assessing the individual and whole groups
* Goals define the basis for the organizational design
* Goals serve an organizing functions.
* Goals reflect what management and employees find important
Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating and establishing targets that challenge the individual.
Individuals and Organizations strive to achieve their goals, thereby if goals are set up correct, their performance should increase.
Ed Locke and Gary Graham developed a sophisticated model in their “theory of goal setting and task performance”, also known as “Goal Setting Theory” – developed / published in 1968 and 1990.
The basic idea ts that a goal serves as a motivator because it allows people to compare their current performance with that required to achieve the goal. To the extend they believe they will miss the goal, they feel dissatisfied and strive to improve their performance to meet it.
They describe different components and aspects in their motivation model
The Challenge
is defined through goal difficulty, goal clarity and self-efficacy
More difficult goals – as long as they are reachable – motivate more and avoid that one gets too lazy because the goal seems too easy to achieve. Unrealistically high goals are not accepted and have no effect on the performance of the individual.
Goals enhance performance by clarifying what type and level of performance is expected or required.
Self-Efficacy (Confidence) refers to the level of confidence that one feels about their ability to achieve their goal.
Moderators
The moderators Ability, Goal Commitment, Feedback and Task Complexity represent the factors that moderate the strength of the relationship between the goals and the performance.
Ability describes the orientation of the individual towards the goals – either it’s a learning goal where he wants to acquire new competencies and learn from it or it’s performance oriented where he avoids placing himself in situations that could lead to a negative evaluation.
Goal commitment is enhanced when goals are public and when goals are self-set.
Feedback makes the goal setting and evaluation process dynamic as it must provide timely response to the individual. It enables him to evaluate himself in respect to his goals.
Task Complexity finally effects the direct relation most. Goals for more trivial tasks lead to a more effective performance, whereas for more complex tasks goals do not lead to direct performance increases – at least we cannot measure it that way.
Mediators
The factors called “mediators” support the achievment of the individuals goals.
“Direction of attention” focusses on keeping the individual away (for the goal) irrelevant activities.
“Persistence” describes the duration the person is willing for work for the goal – the sustainability in reaching it’s goals.
The moderator “Effort” is the greater the more complex and the more difficult the goal ( in realistic boundaries) is.
Task Strategy is the way in which the individual approaches it’s tasks to approach the goal.
Performance
Performance is likely to be high when the challenging goals have been set, the moderators are present and the mediators are operating.
Rewards
Rewards are important to keep an employee at the high performance level he reached. Theory says that the rewards can be external (money etc.) or internal (like feelings of success) – which more accurately referes to the resulting extrinsic or intrinsic motivation. The latter cannot be influenced by an employer directly.
Satisfaction
The Locke-Latham model primary focusses on the employees satisfaction with his own performance.
Employees with too high goals may experience less satisfaction than others, that lower their goal. That does not mean a better performance at all.
Other factors like satisfaction with good working conditions, interesting colleagues etc are not discusses in detail, altough they seem to be the major component for many satisfactory situations for employees nowadays.
Sub-Summary for goal-setting
Goals affect people’s motivation because they have to develop plans to reach these goals and focus on goal-relevant actions mainly. It also spurts people to persist in their way, even when facing obstacles.
Limitations
Goal setting has shown to improve performance, but can fail if
a) the employee lacks the skills to perform the actions necessary to achieve the goals
b) these actions need a considerable amount of learning, which increases the time and resources considerably needed to achieve the goals
c) the goal setting system is just misused (as every system can be misused) or leads to appraising the wrong behavior (like mis-use)
Team vs. Individual Goals
Setting goals and measuring performance against individuals is an expensive method which costs often outweighed the potential gain in productivity. Some cases even report of individuals of a company fighting private wars to reach their goals – with a totally negative effect on the overall company performance. A typical system misuse.
In such cases the development of team goals should be selected with rewards for achievement allocated among the team members on a predetermined-share basis. In general this utilizes what I call “team-dynamics” for the goals’ effect. Something that’s missed for individual goals.
Thursday, September 6, 2007
JIMBOK: Jim Owens' PMP Exam Tips & Columns
Download Tips on each PMBOK chapter here forums.pmhub.net
Thursday, August 30, 2007
Lessons learned - posted by Nitin in Orkut
Hi All,
First of all let me share that the PMP Exam will really test your project management skills, whatever Books and Reading materials you have read, unless and until you grasp the concept and are aware about the terminology it will not be a cake walk.
Preparation:
Scheduling :
I had been studying for the Exam from Feb 2007, when i did my 35 PDU course at astrowix,Delhi chapter and kept the momentum for two months but some how i was not able to schedule the exam due to silly credit card issue .Let me share that i was also under the impression that i can pay the charges through Debit card but this does not work .Finally was able to schedule the exam for august 2007( with new credit card) as i has been preparing quite religiously for last one month and I did not to keep postponing the exam ,since that could have made lose interest in the EXAM .
Final Exam Day
I had finished preparation on sunday and on Monday 27th Aug 2007 , i had scheduled the exam. On the Exam day I just watched Television, as i am quite interested in stocks so was watching the stock market......This helped me to relax before the exam .This strategy works………;) … ,try to focus on something else of your interest and you can relax much more beofre exam.
Here are my suggested reading materials :-
PMBOK Guide -3 times at least
Rita Mulcahy exam prep -4 times at least
and PMFastrack simulation CD-2 times at least
JIMBOk -In case you want to clear doubts and grasp the basic concept this one is too good
Tips:
1. Keep on reading as much as you can from materials you have decided to refer to but please do not keep changing books.
2. No use using plenty of material, Rita and PMBOK is enough for PMP just stick to these books you will pass.
3.Practice a lot of MCQ (like PMP fasttrack 5.0) helps to get used to the type of questions in real exam but the real questions in Exam is totally different so keep yourself ready for surprises (that is why your experience counts in handling projects )as well as your understand
First of all let me share that the PMP Exam will really test your project management skills, whatever Books and Reading materials you have read, unless and until you grasp the concept and are aware about the terminology it will not be a cake walk.
Preparation:
Scheduling :
I had been studying for the Exam from Feb 2007, when i did my 35 PDU course at astrowix,Delhi chapter and kept the momentum for two months but some how i was not able to schedule the exam due to silly credit card issue .Let me share that i was also under the impression that i can pay the charges through Debit card but this does not work .Finally was able to schedule the exam for august 2007( with new credit card) as i has been preparing quite religiously for last one month and I did not to keep postponing the exam ,since that could have made lose interest in the EXAM .
Final Exam Day
I had finished preparation on sunday and on Monday 27th Aug 2007 , i had scheduled the exam. On the Exam day I just watched Television, as i am quite interested in stocks so was watching the stock market......This helped me to relax before the exam .This strategy works………;) … ,try to focus on something else of your interest and you can relax much more beofre exam.
Here are my suggested reading materials :-
PMBOK Guide -3 times at least
Rita Mulcahy exam prep -4 times at least
and PMFastrack simulation CD-2 times at least
JIMBOk -In case you want to clear doubts and grasp the basic concept this one is too good
Tips:
1. Keep on reading as much as you can from materials you have decided to refer to but please do not keep changing books.
2. No use using plenty of material, Rita and PMBOK is enough for PMP just stick to these books you will pass.
3.Practice a lot of MCQ (like PMP fasttrack 5.0) helps to get used to the type of questions in real exam but the real questions in Exam is totally different so keep yourself ready for surprises (that is why your experience counts in handling projects )as well as your understand
Monday, August 27, 2007
Negotiating for Project Benefit - Power (contd.)
The Power of Morality
Inhabitants of the Western world are imprinted with similar ethical and moral standards, learned from school, church or simply from family situations. Concepts of fairness tend to be very much alike and few walk through life without believing that what they are doing is for the good of mankind. That's why by laying morality on people in an unqualified way often works.
By throwing oneself on their mercy, without defense or pretense, there is a chance that they may succumb. Why? Because they can relate and are hesitant to take advantage of someone who is truly defenseless. If they do take advantage, ask if that was fair and reasonable. That sort of question shakes up even the most worldly and self seeking.
Will this type of appeal work with people who have different values and other cultures? Not necessarily. Will it work with those whose imprinting is entirely different? No. People who are programmed in ways alien to us, often cannot comprehend Western concepts of forgiveness, cheek turning and extended olive branches. What they may understand much better is power, opportunism and revenge.
The Power of Persistence
Most people are not persistent enough when negotiating. They present something to the other side and if the other side doesn't buy it right away, they shrug and move on to something else. Many times, persistence eventually pays off.
The Power of Persuasion
Many project managers, especially those with technical backgrounds, rely too heavily on reasoning capacity to achieve their goals. Engineers and scientists learn to believe that logic must prevail. Yet logic by itself rarely influences people and, most often, simply does not work.
If you want to persuade people to believe, do, or buy something, consider these three factors:
1. Develop analogies that relate to their experience
2. Produce evidence that is so overwhelming that it cannot be disputed
3. Make a convincing case that what is being sought will meet their existing needs and desires.
Of these three factors, the third is by far the most important. Why? Because even if
overwhelming evidence is presented and understood, if the conclusion proves to be
depressing to the listener, he or she will remain unconvinced. The facts and logic may be unassailable, but without connection to needs and desires their acceptance will be only a remote possibility.
Bottom line – If you want to persuade people, then show them the immediate relevance and value of what you are saying and Do it by presenting the information in terms of fulfilling their needs and desires.
Inhabitants of the Western world are imprinted with similar ethical and moral standards, learned from school, church or simply from family situations. Concepts of fairness tend to be very much alike and few walk through life without believing that what they are doing is for the good of mankind. That's why by laying morality on people in an unqualified way often works.
By throwing oneself on their mercy, without defense or pretense, there is a chance that they may succumb. Why? Because they can relate and are hesitant to take advantage of someone who is truly defenseless. If they do take advantage, ask if that was fair and reasonable. That sort of question shakes up even the most worldly and self seeking.
Will this type of appeal work with people who have different values and other cultures? Not necessarily. Will it work with those whose imprinting is entirely different? No. People who are programmed in ways alien to us, often cannot comprehend Western concepts of forgiveness, cheek turning and extended olive branches. What they may understand much better is power, opportunism and revenge.
The Power of Persistence
Most people are not persistent enough when negotiating. They present something to the other side and if the other side doesn't buy it right away, they shrug and move on to something else. Many times, persistence eventually pays off.
The Power of Persuasion
Many project managers, especially those with technical backgrounds, rely too heavily on reasoning capacity to achieve their goals. Engineers and scientists learn to believe that logic must prevail. Yet logic by itself rarely influences people and, most often, simply does not work.
If you want to persuade people to believe, do, or buy something, consider these three factors:
1. Develop analogies that relate to their experience
2. Produce evidence that is so overwhelming that it cannot be disputed
3. Make a convincing case that what is being sought will meet their existing needs and desires.
Of these three factors, the third is by far the most important. Why? Because even if
overwhelming evidence is presented and understood, if the conclusion proves to be
depressing to the listener, he or she will remain unconvinced. The facts and logic may be unassailable, but without connection to needs and desires their acceptance will be only a remote possibility.
Bottom line – If you want to persuade people, then show them the immediate relevance and value of what you are saying and Do it by presenting the information in terms of fulfilling their needs and desires.
Sunday, August 26, 2007
Negotiating for Project Benefit - Power (contd.)
The Power of Risk Taking
When negotiating, be prepared to take risks by mixing courage with common sense. Not to do so may result in being out-negotiated. That means avoid becoming emotionally attached to a position wherein the other party can manipulate you with ease. Intelligent risk taking involves a knowledge of the odds plus a philosophical willingness to walk away and absorb a manageable loss without worry.
The Power of Competition
Successful negotiators develop options. By creating competition, what you have to offer moves up in value. The more people who want to participate competitively in a project, the further the budget will go. This applies not only to products or services, but also to ideas. The more competition that is generated for creative ideas in support of the project, from whatever source, the more commitment there is likely to be towards the project and the more successful it will turn out.
The Power of Rewarding or Punishing
The perception that one party can help physically, financially or psychologically gives that party muscle in a relationship. The actual reality of the situation is immaterial, it is the perception that counts. Here are two things to remember:
1. No one will come to the negotiating table in any significant way unless they are convinced that their adversary might help them or hurt them.
2. In this adversarial relationship, never diffuse this perception of power, unless something is obtained in return. This might be a concession or a repositioning on their part that is truly beneficial.
The Power of Legitimacy
Another source of power for the project manager is the power of legitimacy. In Western society, people are conditioned to regard the printed word, documents and printouts as having authority. Most people tend not to question them. By all means use the power of legitimacy but you should challenge that power when it is to your advantage to do so.
When negotiating, be prepared to take risks by mixing courage with common sense. Not to do so may result in being out-negotiated. That means avoid becoming emotionally attached to a position wherein the other party can manipulate you with ease. Intelligent risk taking involves a knowledge of the odds plus a philosophical willingness to walk away and absorb a manageable loss without worry.
The Power of Competition
Successful negotiators develop options. By creating competition, what you have to offer moves up in value. The more people who want to participate competitively in a project, the further the budget will go. This applies not only to products or services, but also to ideas. The more competition that is generated for creative ideas in support of the project, from whatever source, the more commitment there is likely to be towards the project and the more successful it will turn out.
The Power of Rewarding or Punishing
The perception that one party can help physically, financially or psychologically gives that party muscle in a relationship. The actual reality of the situation is immaterial, it is the perception that counts. Here are two things to remember:
1. No one will come to the negotiating table in any significant way unless they are convinced that their adversary might help them or hurt them.
2. In this adversarial relationship, never diffuse this perception of power, unless something is obtained in return. This might be a concession or a repositioning on their part that is truly beneficial.
The Power of Legitimacy
Another source of power for the project manager is the power of legitimacy. In Western society, people are conditioned to regard the printed word, documents and printouts as having authority. Most people tend not to question them. By all means use the power of legitimacy but you should challenge that power when it is to your advantage to do so.
Saturday, August 25, 2007
Negotiating for Project Benefit - Power (contd.)
The Power of Attitude
Perhaps the worst person to negotiate for the project manager is the project manager himself. It is always easier to negotiate on behalf of someone else. This is because setbacks tend to be taken personally and therefore too seriously. It leads to excessive pressure and stress.
In contrast, an intermediary can be more relaxed and more objective. The exercise can be handled more as a game plan, and there is always the option for the intermediary to check back to his or her superior for further instructions. An intermediary can often buy you time to develop a new strategy and ultimately lead you to a more satisfactory conclusion.
The Power of the Knowledge of Needs
In all negotiations there are two things being bargained for:
1. The specific issues and demands which are stated openly
2. The real needs of the other side which are hidden
If you can possibly establish a reasonable guess at what the other side’s needs are, you can often forecast the outcome with remarkable certainty. Never forget that behind every apparently ruthless or uncaring organization or negotiator there are ordinary people desperately striving to meet their individual needs. What people say they want in their demands may not in fact satisfy their actual needs.
The Power of Commitment
Make the power of commitment in others work in three ways:
1. Take advantage of committed support to disperse the overall risk
2. Reduce individual stress level by sharing risk and anxiety with team associates
3. Demonstrate shoulder to shoulder team dedication and transmit awesome power vibrations in the face of opposition
So, obtaining the commitment of others to the project is crucial. You can form partnerships and alliances by offering a piece of the action, so that it is their action as well. Involvement begets commitment and commitment begets power.
Perhaps the worst person to negotiate for the project manager is the project manager himself. It is always easier to negotiate on behalf of someone else. This is because setbacks tend to be taken personally and therefore too seriously. It leads to excessive pressure and stress.
In contrast, an intermediary can be more relaxed and more objective. The exercise can be handled more as a game plan, and there is always the option for the intermediary to check back to his or her superior for further instructions. An intermediary can often buy you time to develop a new strategy and ultimately lead you to a more satisfactory conclusion.
The Power of the Knowledge of Needs
In all negotiations there are two things being bargained for:
1. The specific issues and demands which are stated openly
2. The real needs of the other side which are hidden
If you can possibly establish a reasonable guess at what the other side’s needs are, you can often forecast the outcome with remarkable certainty. Never forget that behind every apparently ruthless or uncaring organization or negotiator there are ordinary people desperately striving to meet their individual needs. What people say they want in their demands may not in fact satisfy their actual needs.
The Power of Commitment
Make the power of commitment in others work in three ways:
1. Take advantage of committed support to disperse the overall risk
2. Reduce individual stress level by sharing risk and anxiety with team associates
3. Demonstrate shoulder to shoulder team dedication and transmit awesome power vibrations in the face of opposition
So, obtaining the commitment of others to the project is crucial. You can form partnerships and alliances by offering a piece of the action, so that it is their action as well. Involvement begets commitment and commitment begets power.
Friday, August 24, 2007
Negotiating for Project Benefit - Power (contd.)
The Power of Professionalism
The project manager's negotiating ability will be increased immeasurably when others are persuaded to identify with him or her. How can this be achieved? By not pulling rank or overplaying authority. You can gain people’s cooperation, loyalty and respect simply by acting as a reasonable person and dealing professionally. By identifying with project participants and approaching them on a human level and speaking to their needs and aspirations.
The Power of Expertise
Why is it that highly qualified technical specialists are often made project managers, even though they may not have project management know-how? That is because technical knowledge, specialized skill and technical experience is perceived as providing a power base for leadership, even though experience on many projects shows that this is not necessarily true.
For the project manager this means establishing his/her background and credentials early in any negotiation. Take advantage of the fact that in complicated egotiations, participants often lack specialized knowledge of certain aspects of the matter being discussed. Whenever possible, obtain that expertise by preparing ahead of time.
On the other hand, don't be over-impressed by the "expert" on the other side. Keep in mind that if the other side didn't need what you have to offer, they wouldn't be there. Try an occasional "I don't follow", or "Can you explain that in layman's language" A dose of irreverence, plus a dash of innocence, when combined with polite persistence and the asking of questions will often change the attitude and behavior of a so-called expert.
The Power of Precedent
The project manager should not act as if his or her limited experience represents universal truth. Start by testing basic assumptions. Don't get locked into time worn ways of doing things by the argument "Don't make waves. You can't argue with success and we've always done it this way".
To justify what is being done or asked for, refer to other situations similar to the current one where others did so-and-so and the required result was achieved. If it suits, but only if it suits, try using the overwhelming logic of folklore, or popular tradition, even though such tradition may actually be illogical. Few are willing to pursue a philosophical debate during a negotiation, it wastes too much time.
The project manager's negotiating ability will be increased immeasurably when others are persuaded to identify with him or her. How can this be achieved? By not pulling rank or overplaying authority. You can gain people’s cooperation, loyalty and respect simply by acting as a reasonable person and dealing professionally. By identifying with project participants and approaching them on a human level and speaking to their needs and aspirations.
The Power of Expertise
Why is it that highly qualified technical specialists are often made project managers, even though they may not have project management know-how? That is because technical knowledge, specialized skill and technical experience is perceived as providing a power base for leadership, even though experience on many projects shows that this is not necessarily true.
For the project manager this means establishing his/her background and credentials early in any negotiation. Take advantage of the fact that in complicated egotiations, participants often lack specialized knowledge of certain aspects of the matter being discussed. Whenever possible, obtain that expertise by preparing ahead of time.
On the other hand, don't be over-impressed by the "expert" on the other side. Keep in mind that if the other side didn't need what you have to offer, they wouldn't be there. Try an occasional "I don't follow", or "Can you explain that in layman's language" A dose of irreverence, plus a dash of innocence, when combined with polite persistence and the asking of questions will often change the attitude and behavior of a so-called expert.
The Power of Precedent
The project manager should not act as if his or her limited experience represents universal truth. Start by testing basic assumptions. Don't get locked into time worn ways of doing things by the argument "Don't make waves. You can't argue with success and we've always done it this way".
To justify what is being done or asked for, refer to other situations similar to the current one where others did so-and-so and the required result was achieved. If it suits, but only if it suits, try using the overwhelming logic of folklore, or popular tradition, even though such tradition may actually be illogical. Few are willing to pursue a philosophical debate during a negotiation, it wastes too much time.
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